There is a long and adventurous story behind the emergence of alternating current, which still powers our computers and domestic appliances. The story began on July, 10, 1856 at midnight: a violent thunderstorm was whipping the Croatian hamlet of Smiljan when Djouka, the wife of Reverend Milutin Tesla, gave birth to baby Nikola. The midwife who assisted Djouka was so impressed with the lightning that she nicknamed Nikola «the son of the storm." Little did she know what "artificial lightning" Nikola would produce as a grown up.
Nikola Tesla was a Serbian-American inventor, engineer and physicist who is best known for his contributions to the design of the modern alternating current (AC) electrical supply system. He was born in Smiljan, Austrian Empire (now Croatia) on July 10, 1856. Tesla studied engineering at the Austrian Polytechnic Institute in Graz and the University of Prague, but did not graduate from either institution. He emigrated to the United States in 1884 and worked for a short time for Thomas Edison before starting his own company, the Tesla Electric Company, in 1887. Tesla's work on AC power was in competition with Edison's direct current (DC) system, and the two men engaged in a bitter rivalry known as the "War of the Currents." Ultimately, AC power won out, and Tesla's inventions have had a profound impact on the world.
In addition to his work on AC power, Tesla also made significant contributions to the fields of radio, radar, and remote control. He died in New York City on January 7, 1943, at the age of 86.
Nikola Tesla's lifelong fascination with electricity began in childhood. At just three years old, he conducted his first experiments, noticing the sparks produced by rubbing his kitten's fur. This early experience ignited a curiosity that would shape his life's work. He wondered, "Is nature like a gigantic cat? If so, who's stroking its back?" Years later, he would still ponder the fundamental question, "What is electricity?"
Tesla's pursuit of answers led him to study engineering at prestigious institutions like the Royal Gymnasium of Calstadt, the Polytechnic of Graz, and the University of Prague. During this time, he became increasingly captivated by electrical and magnetic machinery. After his father's passing, Tesla moved to Budapest, where he began to conceptualize the groundbreaking "alternating-current polyphase induction motor." This invention, described in Robert Lomas' biography, "The Man Who Invented the XX Century," would revolutionize the way we generate and distribute electricity.
The invention of the alternating-current (AC) induction motor was a significant breakthrough in electrical engineering. Previous attempts to create such a motor had failed because the magnetic fields produced by alternating current would dissipate when the current changed direction, causing the motor to stall. Tesla's innovative solution was to utilize two or more out-of-phase alternating currents. This approach, similar to the way a caterpillar's legs move in a wave-like motion to propel it forward, allowed the magnetic fields to work cooperatively to turn the motor's shaft. By using multiple currents, Tesla ensured that there was always enough power to keep the motor running. This design eliminated the need for electrical connections to the shaft, resulting in a more efficient and reliable motor.
After leaving Budapest, Tesla moved to Paris to work for Continental Edison, a company founded by Thomas Alva Edison. Edison, known for his work on electric lighting, had been developing direct current (DC) power systems for domestic use. While Edison is often credited as the inventor of the carbon filament lamp, the concept was actually developed by British scientist Joseph Swan. Swan's lamps, however, had a short lifespan, burning out in minutes. Edison, recognizing the potential of this technology, sought to improve it.
Through rigorous experimentation, Edison tested various materials for filaments, different types of glass bulbs, and different gases to fill the lamps. His efforts led to a significantly improved filament lamp with a lifespan of up to 40 hours. This breakthrough, though building upon Swan's earlier work, solidified Edison's reputation as a pioneer in electric lighting. In 1882, Edison furthered his success by launching his first power plant in New York City, providing electricity to 80 customers and powering 800 lamps. This marked a significant step in the commercialization of electric power and allowed Edison to expand his business internationally.
Upon moving from Budapest to Paris, Tesla believed that Continental Edison, a company founded by Thomas Edison, would be the perfect environment to further develop and apply his ideas about alternating currents and electrical motors. He was convinced that his innovations could revolutionize the existing methods of electricity transmission. Tesla recognized a fundamental flaw in Edison's direct current (DC) system: it was unable to efficiently supply power to homes located far from the power plant.
This limitation of direct current stemmed from the significant energy loss that occurred during transmission over long distances. In contrast, Tesla's alternating current (AC) system could be "transformed" to higher voltages for long-distance transmission, reducing energy losses in the cables. The AC power could then be transformed back to standard voltages for household use. This flexibility, made possible by the use of transformers, which only work with alternating current, gave Tesla's system a distinct advantage.
Edison's direct current (DC) system was inefficient for long-distance transmission due to significant energy losses in the power cables. This limitation hindered its ability to supply electricity to consumers located far from the power source. Tesla's alternating current (AC) system, however, offered a solution to this problem. AC voltage could be easily increased using transformers for long-distance transmission, which minimized energy loss. Upon reaching its destination, the high voltage AC could then be stepped down to safer levels for household use. This flexibility, enabled by the use of transformers, which are incompatible with DC, gave Tesla's AC system a distinct advantage in terms of efficiency and scalability.
Tesla's development of alternating current (AC) transmission solved the long-standing challenge of efficiently delivering electricity over long distances. However, widespread adoption of AC power faced significant obstacles. Despite its clear advantages, it would take many years for Tesla's AC system to overcome the entrenched interests of Edison's direct current (DC) system and be universally recognized as the superior technology for electrical power transmission. This delay was due in part to a "war of currents" between Tesla and Edison, with Edison spreading misinformation about the safety of AC power. Additionally, the existing infrastructure and investments in DC technology presented barriers to the rapid adoption of AC.
Tesla's first opportunity to showcase his skills arose unexpectedly during a business trip to Germany. Continental Edison, his employer at the time, had installed a power plant and lighting system for the Strasbourg railway station. However, during the grand opening ceremony, attended by Kaiser Wilhelm I, a short circuit caused an explosion, damaging a wall and creating a potential diplomatic crisis. Recognizing Tesla's expertise, the company sent him to Strasbourg to resolve the issue. While overseeing the repairs, Tesla, then just 27 years old, seized the opportunity to further his own work. In a small rented laboratory, he constructed the first prototype of his groundbreaking alternating current motor.
In 1884, following his success in Strasbourg, Tesla traveled to New York to work under Thomas Edison, the renowned "inventor of the electric lamp." Tesla, eager to collaborate with such a prominent figure in the field of electricity, hoped to gain Edison's support for his innovative theories on alternating current. However, Tesla's initial enthusiasm quickly turned to disillusionment. Edison showed little interest in Tesla's ideas, favoring his own direct current (DC) system. After two years of working together, marked by growing tension and conflicting visions, Tesla decided to resign from Edison's company and independently pursue his research on alternating current.
Tesla faced financial hardship after parting ways with Edison, resorting to manual labor, including digging ditches, to make ends meet. However, his fortunes changed in 1887 when he secured funding to establish Tesla Electric Company, where he held the majority stake. This marked a turning point in his career, allowing him to dedicate himself fully to his scientific pursuits. The ensuing period was one of remarkable productivity, with Tesla filing an impressive 30 patents for electrical inventions in the following year alone. His groundbreaking work culminated in a presentation at the American Institute for Electrical Engineering in 1888, where he finally gained recognition from the scientific community for his achievements.
Tesla's engineering achievements were threatened by the risk of financial instability and a smear campaign orchestrated by Thomas Edison. Edison, fearing the loss of his prominence in the field of electricity, sought to undermine public confidence in Tesla's alternating current (AC) system. Exploiting public ignorance about electricity, Edison portrayed his own direct current (DC) system as "good and harmless" while depicting Tesla's AC system as "evil and dangerous." Edison's advertisements highlighted alleged lethal accidents caused by high voltage AC and made unsubstantiated claims about the dangers of AC for home use. He even conducted public demonstrations where animals were electrocuted using AC to instill fear and skepticism towards Tesla's technology. Edison's relentless efforts to discredit AC were driven by his desire to maintain his dominance in the electrical industry, even if it meant resorting to unethical tactics.
In the late 19th century, the United States sought a more humane method of execution than hanging. Recognizing the potential of electricity, the state of New York formed a committee led by Harold Brown, an electrical expert and former assistant to Thomas Edison. Brown had gained notoriety for conducting public demonstrations showcasing the lethal effects of electricity on animals, often in support of Edison's campaign against alternating current (AC). This committee initiated experiments on "electric death," using large animals like dogs and horses as test subjects. These gruesome experiments ultimately led to the New York State Assembly passing a law replacing hanging with the electric chair as the state's official method of execution.
Newspapers sensationalized the use of alternating current (AC) in executions, featuring interviews with Brown, who provided detailed descriptions of the lethal procedures involved. The condemned prisoner, with head and legs shaved to facilitate the attachment of electrodes, was strapped to a wooden chair. Metal restraints were placed around the head and legs, and a potash solution was applied to ensure optimal electrical contact. Brown assured the public that death by electrocution would be instantaneous and painless, caused by the violent contraction of muscles. He asserted that this method would uphold the rule of law without inflicting physical suffering, attempting to quell public unease about this new form of capital punishment. However, the association between AC and death further solidified in the public consciousness, casting a negative light on "Tesla's electricity."
On August 6, 1890, William Kemmler became the first person to be executed in the electric chair. However, the execution did not go as planned. The current that was applied was too weak, and Kemmler's body twitched convulsively for 20 minutes before he finally died. This botched execution cast a negative light on the electric chair and led to questions about its effectiveness as a humane method of execution.
In the aftermath of Kemmler's execution, there were calls for the electric chair to be abolished. Some argued that it was a cruel and unusual punishment, while others believed that it was simply too unreliable. However, the electric chair remained in use in the United States for many years to come.
Today, the electric chair is still used in some states, but it is no longer the most common method of execution. Lethal injection is now the most common method of execution in the United States.
The electric chair is a controversial method of execution. Some people believe that it is a cruel and unusual punishment, while others believe that it is a humane way to carry out the death penalty. The use of the electric chair is likely to continue to be debated for many years to come.
According to a 2017 Gallup poll, 54% of Americans believe that the death penalty is morally acceptable, while 44% believe that it is morally wrong. The death penalty is a complex issue with no easy answers. It is important to weigh the pros and cons of the death penalty carefully before forming an opinion on this issue.
The association between alternating current (AC) and death, fueled by Edison's propaganda and the use of AC in executions, created a significant public relations challenge for Tesla's technology. However, a turning point came when a struggling mining company sought to electrify its operations. The San Miguel River offered abundant hydropower potential, but it was located over four kilometers from the mine. This presented an ideal opportunity for Tesla's AC system to demonstrate its superiority over Edison's direct current (DC) system, which was limited by its inability to transmit electricity efficiently over long distances. Tesla's AC system, with its ability to transmit power over long distances using high-voltage transmission lines, proved to be the perfect solution for the mining company's needs. This marked a pivotal moment in the adoption of AC power, as it showcased its practicality and efficiency in a real-world industrial application. The success of Tesla's AC system in this context helped to dispel some of the negative perceptions associated with it and paved the way for its wider acceptance in the industry.
Meanwhile, Tesla continued his experiments, patenting the Tesla coil, a revolutionary invention that would later prove essential for the development of radio transmissions. His insatiable curiosity led him to test the effects of alternating current on himself, just as Alessandro Volta had experimented with the effects of the voltaic pile on his own body a century earlier. Through these self-experiments, Tesla deduced that the lethality of electric shocks was determined not solely by voltage but by the amount of electrical power, calculated as the product of voltage and current. Eccentric and daring, Tesla relished pushing the boundaries of science. He allowed high-voltage electrical discharges, comparable to lightning, to course through his body. However, by carefully controlling the current to extremely low levels, he ensured these demonstrations were safe. In doing so, Tesla became his own "advertising agent," countering Edison's fearmongering by proving that alternating current could be harnessed safely and controllably.Beyond electrifying his own body, Tesla also explored the "skin effect," a phenomenon where high-frequency currents travel along the surface of a conductor. This allowed him to perform captivating demonstrations, such as lighting a lamp by simply holding it while touching a high-frequency current-carrying wire. The current would harmlessly spread over his skin without penetrating his muscles.These extraordinary experiments were conducted in a unique and theatrical atmosphere, as described by Robert Lomas in Tesla's biography:
Insert Quote from Robert Lomas' biography describing the atmosphere of Tesla's demonstrations:
Tesla's showmanship and scientific prowess captivated audiences and helped to reshape public perception of alternating current. His demonstrations highlighted the potential of AC as a safe and controllable form of energy, gradually eroding the fear and skepticism that Edison had sown.
These unusual scientific presentations, a spectacle of both science and showmanship, often took place in Tesla's laboratory following luncheons he hosted. During these performances, he would don a black tailcoat and white shirt, sometimes even sporting a silk top hat that accentuated his already tall stature. High rubber-soled boots added another 15 centimeters to his height, further enhancing his commanding presence. As he conjured sparks and flames in the darkened laboratory, Tesla must have appeared as a figure both awe-inspiring and intimidating, a modern-day god of light. The dramatic flair of his demonstrations served to captivate his audience, making the experience not only educational but also unforgettable. This calculated showmanship was not merely for entertainment; it was a strategic move to counteract the negative publicity surrounding alternating current and to showcase its potential as a safe and controllable form of energy.
The New York papers, once skeptical of alternating current, began to embrace Tesla and his revolutionary work. They published photos of him amidst his electrifying experiments, portraying him as a captivating figure in the realm of science. However, Tesla's fame was fleeting. Financial difficulties forced him to sell his patents to George Westinghouse, the founder of Westinghouse Electric and Manufacturing Company. Westinghouse, recognizing the value of Tesla's inventions, had previously financed his research after Tesla's fallout with Edison. Despite receiving a substantial sum of $216,000, Tesla remained indifferent to the business aspects of his work. He embarked on a European tour, delivering lectures and sharing his discoveries with scientific communities in London and Paris. During this time, he received news of his mother's illness and rushed to be by her side. Following her death, Tesla suffered a mental breakdown and experienced a period of memory loss. It took several months for him to recover, marking a difficult chapter in his personal life.
Returning to the United States, Tesla played a prominent role in the opening ceremony of the Chicago World's Fair on May 1, 1893. He was tasked with overseeing the lighting system, a dazzling display of 966,290 carbon filament lamps manufactured by Westinghouse Electric and powered by Tesla's AC generators. This grand spectacle not only illuminated the fairgrounds but also showcased the immense potential of Tesla's alternating current system on a world stage.
Tesla, dressed in his signature attire of top hat, tailcoat, and high-soled rubber boots, captivated the audience at the Chicago World's Fair with a series of electrifying demonstrations. One such demonstration involved a metal egg placed on a velvet platform. By applying alternating current, Tesla made the egg stand upright and spin rapidly, seemingly defying gravity. This mesmerizing spectacle, along with his other feats of electrical wizardry, such as passing millions of volts through his body and lighting lamps with a mere touch, solidified Tesla's reputation as a pioneer in the field of electricity. These demonstrations not only entertained the crowds but also served to educate the public about the potential of alternating current as a safe and controllable form of energy.
Following the widespread recognition of his groundbreaking work, Tesla achieved another remarkable feat by harnessing the immense power of Niagara Falls using electrical turbines. This ambitious project further solidified his reputation as a leading innovator in the field of electrical engineering. In 1889, Tesla returned to New York, where he continued to push the boundaries of scientific exploration. Ever the creative inventor, he even constructed an oscillatory machine to alleviate his friend Samuel Clemens' (Mark Twain) constipation. However, his primary focus remained on the properties of oscillatory circuits, leading to the invention of a "tuning circuit." This breakthrough would have far-reaching implications for the development of wireless communication. Tesla's visionary ideas were captured in a diary entry where he expressed his ambition to create a system for transmitting messages and even electrical power wirelessly across the globe. This bold concept would lay the foundation for his pioneering work in the field of radio communication.
In 1893, during a lecture at the Saint Louis National Electric Association, Tesla presented his groundbreaking theories on the transmission of electrical signals "tuned" to a specific frequency. This concept laid the foundation for radio communication, but it was Guglielmo Marconi who, three years later, began experimenting with and ultimately commercializing radio transmissions, earning him recognition as the father of modern radio broadcasting. Despite this, Tesla's contributions to the development of radio technology were significant and undeniable.
Following the devastating fire that destroyed his laboratory on May 14, 1895, Tesla rebuilt and continued his innovative work. In 1898, he unveiled a remarkable invention: a radio-controlled boat. This public demonstration showcased his pioneering work in wireless communication and remote control technology. Tesla's relentless pursuit of understanding the mysteries of electricity led him to create increasingly powerful artificial lightning, generating discharges of up to 4 million volts. Through these experiments, he made a groundbreaking discovery: the Earth's atmosphere could act as a vast conductor, capable of carrying low-frequency signals around the globe by following the planet's curvature. This finding further expanded the possibilities of wireless communication and solidified Tesla's status as a visionary scientist and inventor.
In his later years, Tesla's scientific pursuits focused increasingly on the concept of wireless energy transmission. His notes reveal ambitious plans for developing "a very small and compact device" capable of sending substantial amounts of energy wirelessly across vast distances, even into interstellar space. This concept, though seemingly fantastical, was a natural extension of his groundbreaking work in wireless communication and power transmission. Tesla envisioned a world where energy could be harnessed and transmitted freely, without the constraints of wires and cables. This vision, though not fully realized in his lifetime, continues to inspire scientists and engineers today as they explore the possibilities of wireless power transfer.
In the twilight of his life, on January 5, 1943, a frail 87-year-old Nikola Tesla reached out to Colonel Erskine of the US War Department with a remarkable proposition. Tesla, residing at the New Yorker Hotel in Manhattan, spoke of a groundbreaking invention: a device capable of transmitting energy wirelessly over long distances. This was not merely a theoretical concept but the culmination of years of research into a system that would utilize the Earth's atmosphere and ground as conduits for electrical power. Tesla envisioned a world where wireless electricity would be readily available, powering lights and communication devices, and accessible through aerial collectors.Driven by a sense of patriotism, Tesla offered to share the details of his invention with the War Department, believing it could have significant military applications. However, Colonel Erskine, perhaps skeptical of the elderly inventor's claims, dismissed the offer. He promised to return Tesla's call but never did, leaving the inventor's groundbreaking work unrecognized and unsupported by the government.
On the night of January 5, 1943, Tesla retired to his room at the New Yorker Hotel, where he was found deceased three days later by a hotel employee. In a move driven by wartime paranoia, the US government, suspecting him of being a Yugoslavian spy, seized all of Tesla's possessions, including his scientific notes and inventions. This act of appropriation, ordered by the FBI under J. Edgar Hoover, shrouded Tesla's work in secrecy for decades. His inventions were classified as "Top Secret," and Hoover emphasized the need for absolute confidentiality to prevent potential enemies from exploiting Tesla's discoveries.
While the secrecy surrounding Tesla's work has since been lifted, his name and contributions remain relatively unknown to the general public. The remnants of his innovative work, including personal artifacts and experimental devices, are preserved at the Nikola Tesla Museum in Belgrade, Serbia, which miraculously survived the NATO bombing of 1999.
Despite the US Supreme Court's ruling in 1943 that recognized Tesla as the true inventor of radio transmission, the veil of secrecy surrounding his life and work persisted. It took decades for the international scientific community to fully acknowledge the genius of the man who had dedicated his life to unraveling the mysteries of electricity and harnessing its power for the benefit of humanity. Even today, the legacy of the "Lord of Lightning" continues to inspire and intrigue, as scientists and engineers build upon his pioneering work to shape the future of technology.