Oil lamps, like the one patented by John Irwin in 1862, transformed society. Bright and affordable artificial light revolutionized our perception of time, work, leisure, and consumption. The demand for kerosene, derived from petroleum, surged, leading to increased drilling in the U.S. and abroad. U.S. domestic crude oil production experienced exponential growth. By the 1870s, kerosene had become a major American export.

Although electric lights eventually replaced kerosene lamps in the late 1800s, the reliance on petroleum persisted, as gasoline fueled even greater demand, perpetuating our dependence on fossil fuels. - Peter Liebhold, emeritus curator, Division of Work and Industry. 

Medicine and science apparatus for administering nitrous oxide and other anesthetic gases, circa 1890

Nitrous oxide, commonly known as laughing gas, has been a staple in dentistry since the 19th century, easing countless patients' anxieties. However, this benefit comes with a hefty environmental price. Nitrous oxide is a far more potent greenhouse gas than carbon dioxide, and its effects linger in the atmosphere for extended periods.

This ornate gasometer, patented in 1884 by dentist Amos Long, exemplifies the historical use of nitrous oxide in dental practices. Its intricate design belies the harmful impact of this gas on our planet. While primarily used for dental procedures, nitrous oxide also found its way into obstetrics to alleviate pain during childbirth.

Today, the healthcare industry, including the use of anesthetics like nitrous oxide, contributes significantly to greenhouse gas emissions in the United States. Surprisingly, few people are aware of the connection between their comfortable dental experiences and the ongoing climate crisis. - Alexandra M. Lord, chair and curator of medicine, Division of Medicine and Science.

Photosynthometer, circa 1905

This pear-shaped plant chamber and graduated cylinder, once a common sight in college labs, allowed students to measure the exchange of gases during photosynthesis. By 1905, when botanist William Francis Ganong described this apparatus, the basic inputs and outputs of photosynthesis were understood, but the underlying biological mechanism remained a mystery.

The photosynthometer reflects the growing influence of chemistry on botanical studies. It took decades of interdisciplinary research to fully understand the carbon pathway in photosynthesis, just one piece of the intricate carbon cycle that continuously moves carbon between the atmosphere and Earth. – Kristen Frederick-Frost, curator of modern science, Division of Medicine and Science.

Gasoline pump, 1911

The gasoline pump, over its century-long history, has reflected the evolving relationship between consumers, the oil industry, government, and the environment. Initially designed for gas lighting systems by Gilbert & Barker in 1865, the company later adapted to the growing demand for gasoline due to the rise of automobiles. In 1910, they introduced hand-operated pumps, marking the birth of modern gas stations, and by 1911, they were producing pumps capable of measuring the amount of gasoline dispensed.

The future of gas pumps in the context of climate change is uncertain. The popularity of electric vehicles, with their need for charging stations rather than gasoline, and the increasing use of public transportation could potentially reduce the reliance on individually operated vehicles and, consequently, gas pumps. - P.L.

“Swift’s Premium Corned Beef” crate label, 1920s

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The United Nations has consistently highlighted that greenhouse gas emissions from animal agriculture are comparable to those from transportation, with the cattle industry accounting for over half of the livestock sector's climate impact. This significant carbon footprint can be traced back to the mid-20th century, when beef grading was adopted and industrial feedlots gained prominence, initially in the U.S. and then globally.

A label like this "Swift's Premium Corned Beef" crate label symbolizes the early stages of graded beef marketing. In the late 1920s, meatpackers like Swift & Company began grading and labeling beef with their own brands, eventually leading to the dominance of the USDA's national grading system. This system favored grain-fed cattle over grass-fed, driving producers towards intensive corn-feeding practices in industrial feedlots. Consequently, the cattle population exploded, causing a dramatic increase in carbon emissions by the 1970s. - Abeer Saha, curator, Division of Work and Industry.

Caterpillar diesel engine “Old Betsy,” 1930

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According to the United Nations, since 2014, greenhouse gas emissions from animal agriculture, particularly the cattle industry, are comparable to those from transportation. This significant environmental impact can be traced back to the mid-20th century, when the introduction of beef grading and the rise of industrial feedlots transformed the industry.

This "Swift's Premium Corned Beef" label exemplifies early graded beef marketing. In the late 1920s, meatpackers like Swift & Company started grading and branding beef with their own names, eventually leading to the widespread adoption of the USDA's national grading system. This system prioritized grain-fed cattle over grass-fed, incentivizing intensive corn-feeding practices in industrial feedlots. As a result, the cattle population soared, and by the 1970s, carbon emissions from the industry had skyrocketed. - Abeer Saha, curator, Division of Work and Industry.

Caterpillar diesel engine “Old Betsy,” 1930

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"Old Betsy," Caterpillar's first mass-produced diesel engine model, introduced in 1930, revolutionized the heavy machinery industry. Its 86.8 horsepower and ability to run on various fuels made it a popular choice for construction and agricultural equipment. Manufacturers favored diesel over gasoline due to its increased efficiency.

However, the environmental impact of diesel engines is a major concern today. They account for over 25% of carbon dioxide emissions in the U.S. transportation sector. While diesel engines can burn more efficiently than gasoline engines, potentially releasing less carbon dioxide per distance traveled, the comparison is complex and varies depending on the specific vehicle and design. Critically, diesel engines are also significant contributors to nitrogen oxide and particulate matter emissions, which have detrimental effects on human health and the climate. - A.S.

Deep-sea thermometer, circa 1940

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Climate change is often associated with rising atmospheric temperatures, leading to a cascade of negative impacts. However, the oceans, covering the majority of our planet, play a crucial role in heat absorption and distribution, influencing the climate system significantly. While weather records provide valuable information, they offer only a partial understanding of the intricate climate puzzle.

Since the 17th century, scientists have recognized the importance of oceans in climate regulation. However, studying the vast and deep ocean waters has been a formidable challenge. The slow circulation of cold, deep waters carrying equatorial warmth to polar regions makes even slight temperature variations highly significant. To overcome the difficulties of measuring temperature at great depths, innovative solutions were developed.

This reversing thermometer, commonly used from 1890 to 1970, showcases several ingenious features. To protect the thermometer bulb from immense water pressure, it was encased in a sturdy outer tube. Moreover, the reversing mechanism ensured that the temperature reading taken at the desired depth remained preserved until the instrument was retrieved.

The reversing principle, introduced by Negretti & Zambra in 1874, involved a sliding weight ("messenger") that triggered the reversal of the thermometer and also released another messenger to activate the next thermometer in a series. Additionally, a Nansen bottle attached to the frame collected water samples at different depths for further analysis. - Roger Sherman, curator of modern physics, Division of Medicine and Science.

Keeling flask, late 20th-century

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At the Mauna Loa Observatory in Hawaii, over 11,000 feet above sea level, a hiss marked the opening of a glass flask. The resulting vacuum was filled with a sample of North Pacific air before being resealed and sent back to the Scripps Institution of Oceanography. This routine journey, repeated over many years, contributed to a crucial atmospheric carbon dioxide dataset spanning from 1958 onwards.

Scientist Charles David Keeling initially observed a seasonal variation in the data, correlating with plant growth. However, over time, a more ominous trend emerged: a continuous rise in carbon dioxide levels due to fossil fuel consumption. This led to the creation of the Keeling Curve, an iconic symbol in climate science that raised alarm about global warming. James Hansen, in a 2005 New York Times obituary for Keeling, succinctly captured the significance of his work: “He altered our perspectives about the degree to which the earth can absorb the human assault.” - K.F.

Solarex “Solar Energizer” solar panel, circa 1983

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The history of climate change is full of unexpected twists. One example is the surprising role the petroleum industry played in making solar panels a viable energy source. This Solarex "Solar Energizer" actually powered equipment on an offshore oil rig.

The scientific foundation for solar panels dates back to the 19th century, but it wasn't until 1954 that Bell Telephone Laboratories developed a practical solar cell. These were initially used to power remote communication equipment where conventional power lines were impractical.

Fast forward to the 1980s, and the oil industry began investing in solar panel research to address challenges in their own operations. Offshore, solar panels offered a cost-effective alternative to heavy batteries for powering equipment, while onshore, they provided small currents to protect oil well casings from corrosion.

The oil industry's adoption of solar technology not only reduced their own expenses but also demonstrated the real-world viability of solar panels beyond space applications. This spurred further development and cost reduction, ultimately leading to the widespread use of solar panels we see today, contributing to a shift away from fossil fuels. - H.W.

Levee wall fragment, 2005

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The challenge of climate change presents a stark irony: society expects scientists and engineers to resolve a crisis they arguably contributed to creating.

Historically, cities have been established near bodies of water due to their benefits, such as water supply and transportation. However, this proximity also increases vulnerability to flooding. Climate change exacerbates this issue by causing rising sea levels and intensifying weather events, making storms rainier, windier, and more damaging.

The 2005 Hurricane Katrina disaster in New Orleans exemplifies this challenge. Flooding occurred due to a combination of factors, including an engineering flaw in the flood wall design. While the faulty infrastructure was replaced with a stronger one, the question remains: Can engineering ultimately outpace the escalating forces of nature in the future? - P.L.

Container ship model, 2006

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The history of container ships highlights the complex challenges of addressing climate change. These massive vessels, carrying standardized cargo containers, revolutionized global trade by enabling cost-effective overseas production. However, their immense engines contribute significantly to air pollution, while the insatiable consumer demand for cheap goods they transport further intensifies the climate impact. Finding solutions to this transportation conundrum is far from straightforward.

The Emma Maersk, a colossal and efficient container ship launched in 2006, exemplifies this complexity. While its vast capacity and powerful engine enable the transportation of enormous quantities of goods, its fuel consumption is equally immense, raising concerns about its environmental footprint.

The Industrial Revolution marked a shift from local production to global consumption patterns. Today, manufacturers cater to ever-increasing consumer demand by shipping goods worldwide. The question remains: Is the convenience of cheap transportation fueling climate change, or does the responsibility ultimately lie with our own insatiable desire for goods? - P.L.

Mosquito nets, 2017

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The devastating impact of Hurricane Maria on Puerto Rico in 2017 reveals a potent combination of climate change and a history of colonialism. The storm's destructive force, magnified by unsustainable energy systems and weakened infrastructure due to past exploitation, resulted in widespread suffering and loss.

Puerto Rico's colonial past, spanning 500 years, left the island vulnerable to the hurricane's wrath. The storm's immense size and power caused over 4,000 deaths, countless injuries, and lasting trauma.

The island's precarious infrastructure, a legacy of industrialization and a debt crisis, exacerbated the damage. Homes designed to rely on air conditioning or natural ventilation were easily breached, leaving residents exposed to relentless mosquito attacks. Environmentalist Fernando Silva recognized the resulting sleep deprivation and led a community effort to revive the lost art of crafting mosquito nets, providing relief to affected communities.

Bitcoin ring, 2018

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For centuries, physical currency like coins and banknotes has been the primary medium of exchange, relying on environmentally taxing processes like metal mining. Digital currencies, such as Bitcoin, initially seem like a greener alternative. However, the digital mining required for many cryptocurrencies consumes vast amounts of electricity, primarily generated from fossil fuels, raising concerns about their environmental sustainability.

Bitcoin, the most popular cryptocurrency, has become a cultural symbol representing a rejection of traditional systems. The Bitcoin ring, a unique take on the engagement ring, exemplifies this sentiment. It allows the wearer to invest in Bitcoin instead of a diamond, with a 3D-printed QR code linking to the blockchain and displaying the amount of Bitcoin owned. Although seemingly more environmentally friendly than traditional diamond mining, the Bitcoin ring's environmental impact is hidden in the energy-intensive mining process. - Ellen Feingold, curator of the national numismatic collection, Division of Work and Industry.